The Science of Sweet

A few years ago, as a college Sophomore, I was looking into any culinary arts classes that NYU offered. That was when, in the Steinhardt School, I found the Food Studies department. What follows is the term paper I wrote for my first class, 'Food and Society' on the subject of my choosing, artificial sweeteners (I felt the need to combine my love of food with my work as a chemist). It's the unannotated version (I dunno how to post the footnotes without making it more work than it's worth) and it could stand some revising, both in terms of current events/research and even my own point of view. Even if you'd disagree with me, I hope you'd find it interesting.

Ryan Harrington
Prof. Jennifer Berg
Food and Society
April 2007
The Science of Sweet
“After closing my eyes, I suddenly smelled a grilled hamburger. The aroma was uncanny, almost miraculous. It smelled like someone in the room was flipping burgers on a hot grill. But when I opened my eyes, there was just a narrow strip of white paper and a smiling flavorist.”
Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation, page 132.
For decades, science has played an integral role in the development of the food people eat. Genetic engineering has changed the corn (and its subsequent derivatives, chiefly corn syrup) grown around the world. Through analysis and replication of complex organic chemicals, flavorists have developed the fragrant “natural” fruit flavors that embody the taste of that bottle of Snapple. Anti mold and yeast reagents maintain the freshness preserved in the Twinkie. The harvesting of insects is used to color your child’s Gogurt. The engineering of the water gun knife revolutionized how to cut mass quantities of French fries. Every year, about 90 percent of the money spent on food in America goes to buy processed food. One of the most significant developments that science has contributed to what we, as a society, eat is in the form of sugar substitutes. It is through these sugar substitutes that we can examine not only how the quality of diet has degraded through advancements in science but also how, fundamentally, the quality of social character has degraded, coming to rely more on quick answers that ultimately distract from, but do not fix, the problems at hand. As a society, we are willing to lie to ourselves rather than deal with the consequences of the truth.
The oldest artificial sweetener is saccharin, accidentally developed in 1879. Chemists at Johns Hopkins University working with coal tar derivatives discovered it by accident. During dinner, the food they ate had a distinctly sweet taste followed by a bitter aftertaste; they realized this as the result of the residue left on their hands. An article detailing its production and applications was published a year later and quickly became a commercial success. Similarly, three of the other most prominent artificial sweeteners, cyclamate, aspartame, and sucralose were all also discovered by accident but have also proven to be commercially dominant forces.
Artificial sweeteners established themselves as a mainstay of popular diet by reaching a widespread audience during the sugar rationing of World War I. Artificial sweeteners also established themselves as a champion food additive of the diabetic. Not affecting their blood sugar levels, diabetics could increase the variety of their diets while still maintaining control. As calorie counting became more prominent and diet awareness more prevalent, artificial sweeteners became an even more integral part of societal eating habits. Today, diners and coffee shops around the country traditionally carry three colored packets of artificial sweeteners: Sweet ‘N Low (saccharine), Equal (aspartame), and Splenda (sucralose).
Reinventing the wheel has never proven such a lucrative opportunity as with the war of artificial sweeteners. Market analysts project annual growth of artificial sweeteners at 8.3%, reaching over $189 million by 2008. In a capitalistic market system, competition is actively encouraged to promote innovation. The key is marketing; make everything else look obsolete. Appearance versus reality. Sugar was once highly praised for both its sweetness and even for its dense food energy, able to best it former sweetener, honey, in several prevalent applications. It has been the backbone of the working class, forming one of several key “drug foods” to support long work days and strenuous work loads. Yet recently, through socially imposed standards and beliefs, sugar has been vilified. And between the counter-attacks of the sugar industry, and infighting with artificial sweeteners, the competition devolves very quickly into a popularity contest rather than advancing the human diet. The politics behind what goes into the food we eat is just as influential as the nutrition. When aspartame was in its earliest stages of approval, FDA Commissioner Arthur Hull Hayes approved aspartame as a food additive without the consensus of the Public Board of Inquiry designated to assess the risk of Aspartame. Hayes was closely associated with the artificial sweetener industry having several close friends, most notably Donald Rumsfeld, then the CEO of G.D. Searle. Still, all this politicking would be for naught if, ultimately, there was no popular appeal for artificial sweeteners.
The real driving force behind the mass appeal of artificial sweeteners has been the ever growing concern of weight gain. Body image has become an increasingly dominant influence in culture. We are taught that you have to look a certain way to be successful. But in this day and age, we look for convenience; getting desired results without the sacrifice. Because artificial sweeteners do not contain any food energy, it is a popular belief that replacing normal high energy foods with those using artificial sweeteners will assist in weight loss. No actual study has supported this theory. Rather, recent studies have shown that consuming artificial sweetener can actively be linked to weight gain. It cannot be determined, yet, that artificial sweeteners promoted weight gain or simply did not hinder it. There is a theory that artificial sweeteners stimulate appetite and the body’s craving for calories because of the very fact that they do not have any. Research is still ongoing. While part of the problem may be biological, there is a clear psychological component. It is important to remember that changing food energy intake from one source does not necessarily impact overall intake. Sometimes, it is this very illusion that facilitates the behavior one tries to avoid. In an “obesity epidemic,” it is easy to take control of one aspect and convince one’s self that the easy solution is one that will fix the problems. When confronted with prepackaged convenience foods at every corner, it is easy to justify one’s actions by believing the hyped image.
In no other industry has artificial sweeteners made such an impact as in the soft drink industry. Though “soft drinks” have been around for since the 17th century and carbonated beverages since the late 18th, it was not until the 1950s that “no-cal” or “diet” sodas and colas became available. Clearly through marketing and naming, the appearance of a more health conscious beverage is made without necessarily proving as any means to actually diet. Like so many trends, people want simple solutions to problems without sacrificing the luxury of their bad habits. Relaying vague implications and relying on the consumer to make the logical leap has always been a process that the food industries have utilized. SnackWell's, a line of low-fat snacks, were so popular in the early 1990s that ravenous consumers emptied entire stores of the cookies. In 1995, the brand's revenues hit $500 million, making it one of the most successful product launches in the history of the food industry. Consumers assumed “low fat” or “non fat” meant that they were healthy. In reality, because of the high amounts of sugar to make these treats, they are high in calories and still unhealthy. Similarly, and even more successfully, diet colas have been marketed as the health conscious alternative to the ever more prevalent soft drink market.
Field research into grocery, convenience, drug, and department stores as well as vending machines and restaurants reveal that in New York City, diet cola is one of the most available, also implying most demanded, sodas, trailing only behind regular cola. It is also important to note that for nigh every other soft drink available in grocery stores, its diet counterpart was also available, allocated the same space and quantity. In stores and restaurants with a limited selection of soft drinks available, cola and diet cola were the only two consistently available in every location. It is no hyperbole to claim that diet soda accounts for nearly 40% of the supply of soft drinks. And it is hard not to make the logical leap from a consistently supplied product as also representing a consistently purchased one. Americans love the taste of soda, hate the idea of calories, and love the images that diet sodas seem to be push.
Despite the success of artificial sweeteners, and in some part because of it, controversy over their safety has erupted in a widespread, heated debate. There is debate on every major sweetener, most often linked to their carcinogenic properties. Studies have indicated that continuous consumption of certain artificial sweeteners have increased the risk of cancerous growths in the laboratory rats. This does not necessarily translate to humans however; the mechanism that causes saccharin to induce bladder cancer in laboratory rats is not found in humans. Still, the threat has been enough for some countries to continue to ban saccharin. Aspartame is still debated by some to be linked to the rise in cases of brain tumors, though there is a distinct lack of conclusive evidence. And sucralose has garnered scrutiny for its classification as an organochlorine, many of which are highly toxic, including the pesticide DDT.
Several publications have come out, exploring and challenging the safety claims of artificial sweeteners, often urging their audiences to reconsider the consumption of said products. Like how a lot of the news in this country is presented, many of these books are pushing a strong sensationalist feel, relying on scare tactics and fear. Sweet Deception: Why Splenda, NutraSweet, and the FDA May be Hazardous to Your Health by Joseph Mercola, Excitotoxins: The Taste that Kills by Russell Blaylock, and Sweet Misery: A Poisoned World by Cori Brackett. All of these titles are designed to draw an audience based on shock and fear. By putting its audience in a state of panic, they are guaranteeing a captive audience. Again, it is a delicate balance between appearances and reality.
People themselves seem quite divided on opinion of diet sodas and artificial sweeteners. Field research into the opinions of people shed some light into psychological aspects of these drinks. Of those that drink diet sodas, the overwhelming reason why was because of lower calories. This was often supplemented by statements that the taste was not that much different. When asked to elaborate, typical responses clarified the implied meaning that while of inferior taste, the lack of calories more than made up for its corn syrup sweetened counterpart. Meanwhile, those that drink regularly sweetened soda over diet soda typically responded that quality of taste was their main concern. Often found were reports of “unnatural” or “fake” taste which were undesirable. Many admitted that their consumption of soda was not that healthy and their diet may improve with a switch to diet sodas but were unwilling to sacrifice the taste. Nearly every participant reported hearing concerns over the safety of artificial sweeteners, either in general but especially specifically concerned with Equal (Aspartame). Several sought out beverages only sweetened with Splenda (Sucralose), claiming it, unlike the others, has been proven harmless. Clearly, the subjects seemed influenced as much by popular culture as by science. Outside studies have shown that upwards of two thirds of Americans are aware of the possible risk associated with artificial sweeteners but at the same time does not seem to hinder the sales of said products.
There is a lot to be said about artificial sweeteners. More importantly there is a lot more left unknown. Few things have been able to impact a culture so rapidly while their long term effects still remain to be decisively determined. It is a clear example of a society relying on science and technology to provide an easy solution to rectify or improve a bad situation. People expect an expedient solution, in the here and now. Consequences are left to be dealt with in the never approaching future. From the scientist that stumbled onto latest synthetic compound to “improve” the eating experience, the lobbyist that pushes it ahead through the red tape to reach market faster, the consumers who willingly lie to themselves that they are making positive choices, to the expert scaring a population into thinking they’ve just given themselves cancer. Whether you are just trying to allay the guilt of drinking that guilty pleasure or trying to increase net profits, there are a variety of ways in which artificial sweeteners have shaped society since its inception. And it is easy to see just how much of this food additive has nothing to do with food at all.
Some would have you believe that these sweeteners are as benign as table salt. Some claim that they are a tumor inducing blight on society. And there are those that are hesitant to make judgments and err on the side of caution. Look what happened to our environment after Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) became a dominant industrial component. Look at the aftermath of asbestos as the touted fireproof insulation. Science has done so much, so fast. And now the backlash is emerging; some people are becoming weary of the advances that scientists have brought. All natural. Organically grown. Hormone free. It is a return to basics, before things got complicated. It is a way to rationalize the safety of our food in an ever increasing fear inducing society. But what do these claims mean versus what they imply? So much of the food industry is designed to appease the guilty conscious of the consumer while not actually address the problem at hand. It is still a constant question of appearance versus reality. The dichotomy of “natural” and “processed” foods is slowly blurring more and more into a gradient. Like saccharine itself, we may be heading towards the sweet taste of the future only to be left with a bitter aftertaste.

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Allez Cuisine

So every year, NYU has been hosting 'Master Chef: NYU' (originally under the title Iron Chef NYU). And every year, I never seem to get my act together. I missed the deadline this year.

I suppose it's better than being rejected like last year (though I did serve as a judge). I guess I was never the most 'health conscious' cook (this is run by the Student Health Center). Plus the limited ingredient list hindered what I wanted to do.

Anyways, this is an altered breakfast menu based on what I came up with last year:
12 large eggs
1 cup milk
2 Hass avocados, diced, mashed, seasoned
1 cup shredded cheese (I recommend a blend of sharp cheddar, Monterrey Jack, and asiago)
1 cup sour cream
1 cup salsa (prepared fresh or from your favorite shop)
1/2 cup bell pepper, diced, mixed color (cooked)
1/2 cup onion, diced (cooked)
Olive Oil
Salt

1. Heat a non stick pan (preferrably in a salamander) with a tablespoon of oil while you whisk together the milk and eggs.
2. Pour in 1/6th of the scrambled eggs into the skillet and leave under the broiler for 10 seconds. Remove from pan onto serving platter.
3. Add veggies.
4. Repeat, replacing step 3 with one of the other spreads as a layer between the eggs.

It's like a naked breakfast burrito tower.

Pair with Southwest Hash Browns:
Grate 4 large (clean) russet potatoes into a bowl of water.
Drain and Dry (as thoroughly as possible, some recommend a ricer)potatoes.
Toss with a blend of 3 parts paprika, 2 parts salt, 2 parts Cayenne, 1 part garlic powder, 1 part ground mustard, 1 part cumin, and/or any other spices that play nice.
Fry in a skillet of heated oil, turning halfway through.

Cut this Tex-Mex caliente with a tropical smoothie, sweet and refreshing.
In a blender combine:
6oz OJ
3oz Pineapple Juice
6oz Guava Juice
6oz Mango Juice
10oz Vanilla Yogurt
6oz frozen strawberries
6oz frozen peaches

(Originally I also had buttermilk biscuits with blueberry preserves, but looking back, I don't think, as a whole, they fit as well as I had assumed. I was just trying to do as much as possible to impress I guess)

This year, had I gotten my act together, I would've gone a little simpler.
In the spirit of the "local-vore" movement it would've been something like this.
I'd replace the honey with Maple Syrup. Also I'd put the apples in a baking dish, filled with an inch of apple cider. After they are removed from the oven, take the cider, reduce to half the volume and pour over the top. Serve with ice cream.

Yes, I realize this is now dessert. After I started on this apple dish I just couldn't help myself. Oops.

Realistically, I was thinking of trying for an italian inspired hash/quiche:
Potatoes, onions, peppers, and spices coarsely chopped and pan cooked (omitting the beef). Scrambled eggs poured in towards the end. I'd use tomato and basil for both flavor and color, and tie it all together with goat cheese.

Maybe one day I'll wake up early and surprise my roommates with this. Maybe one day I'll wake up early.

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Brotherly Love

Because I came back to New York a week before school started, I decided to take a little trip and see some out of state sights. By which, of course, I mean eat other foods. So I arranged to visit my friend Tim who lives just outside of Philadelphia and encounter what the city had to offer.

Do you remember how I said even though I've been in New York City for four years and I still cannot navigate the west village? Well apparently, this direction problem is more widespread than I thought. Tim offered to pick me up from the train station in Trenton, NJ and drive me the rest of the way to Philly. I still don't understand all these small states. It seems like more of a hassle than it is. Anyways, the plan was to drive into Philly and get his favorite cheesesteak, from Tony Luke's.

Obviously, we got lost on the way there. We could literally see it when we made a wrong turn and ended up on a highway going away from our destination.
While I don't claim to be a moron (others may, though I have a CA driver's license), I am not exactly the world's greatest driver. I've totaled my car before. I get confused when there are multiple freeways (or when there are toll booths) (these are things I never grew up with, ok?). So I was heavily relying on Tim getting us to where we needed to be. There was talk of a lot of numbers and directions, taking exits that just spit us onto other highways, and signs that were vague and confusing. It was mildly worrisome when we were passing signs indicating we were near Trenton (again).

After driving around in, essentially, a big circle, we got off the highway and risked the surface streets. Tim utilizing his excellent sense of what is near Tony Luke's drove on and we eventually found it. I obviously ordered and "whiz wit'" and a Pepsi. Though I am partial to Provolone (the original cheesesteak cheese of the 30s) I felt a certain iconic symbolism in the cheez whiz. Don't ask me why. The semi insulated dining area was all chrome business. Austere but fully functionally. Which, fittingly, describes the cheesesteak. It wasn't fancy or adorned with the unnecessary. It was a crusty, textured roll that gently cradled a warm and delicious heap of thinly sliced, tender steak, ripples of orange sauce with that creamy texture of cheese, and onions sweetly grilled to lend an edge to round out the flavor. This is what people talk about when they talk about cheesesteaks.


Though content to the point of bursting for hours, by late evening the hunger set in again. And of course this called for Tim's favorite place ever, or so it seems as I've heard him describe it so frequently. This, of course, is the Mid Atlantic sensation Wawa. Though vaguely described as 7-11 or other convenience chain, I like to think of Wawa as somehow combining the best aspects of 7-11, Subway, and Tokyo. 7-11 because obviously it's a convenience chain, you can buy your gas, your big gulp, bags of chips, or even have a milkshake blended for you automatically (!!!), all of this 24/7. Subway because you can order a variety fresh made delicious sandwiches. And Tokyo, only because they employ what seems an overly elaborate computer touch pad ordering system, the only other time I used for food was when I visited Japan. I got a toasted Italian sub, loaded with garden veggies and splashed with oil and vinegar. Of course I got the self blended chocolate shake with it too. I HAD to try it out. It was, all in all, an amazing experience. I would kill to have that back in Santa Barbara (though it's really hard to beat Freebird's for the late night glut attack).

Anyways after that, we done. Full well through the night. Our lunch plans the next morning traded for extra sleep. I guess we "ruined our appetites." Such is life. There's always another one right behind it.
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It's good to be home

Though I returned to the East Coast by Tuesday, I spent a few days visiting Philadelphia (not to mention not everyone came back by then either). So when I returned to my little Kips Bay apartment and my friend and cohort Madelyn had returned from her city reprieve in Boston, we rejoiced with the baking of brownies!


I grew up making this brownie recipe since I was maybe 13, still riding my bike to the store to pick up the missing ingredient. I believe it comes from the Mrs. Field's cookbook that mom had in the cookbook shelves of our bookcase. Anyways, as a budding baker, even then I found I could tinker with the parts and give it my own twist.

6oz unsweetened baking chocolate
1 cup (2 sticks) unsalted butter

4 large eggs
2 cups sugar
1 Tbsp vanilla extract
1 tsp espresso grounds

1/2 cup AP flour
1 cup chocolate chips

Preheat oven to 300 degrees F.

In a double boiler, gently melt the chocolate and butter together, then let cool to room temperature.

Beat eggs, sugar, vanilla, and espresso on low speed until the sugar is thoroughly dissolved and the mixture is smooth.

Add the chocolate/butter mixture to the sugar mixture and combine thoroughly.

Add the flour and mix to combine, careful not to overbeat too much.

Pour batter into a greased baking pan (I like to save the butter wrappers from earlier for this exact purpose) and place into over for 45-55 minutes. A toothpick should insert easily and come out cleanly.

Let cool for at least 30 minutes (I know, brutal) and then enjoy! (we did with ice cream)

In full disclosure, I used to top these bad boys with homemade caramel:
Grr...I cannot seem to locate my original recipe (must be back in cali)
but this is a good approximation:

1/2 cup heavy cream
3 tablespoons butter (melted)
3 tablespoons light corn syrup
1 1/2 cup packed light brown sugar

Combine ingredients and stir until uniform. Heat until boiling (approx 3 minutes), continuously stirring. Immediately remove from heat, continue to stir. Pour over anything and everything.
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The return and end (?) of TNBC

Madelyn and I started the year off right, with the first 2009 meeting of the Tuesday Night Burger Club heading to world renowned Corner Bistro. But after shuffling around my schedule, will the TNBC cease to exist?


My first day of classes was a little rough. Two lectures (spread mercilessly throughout the day, from 9:30 until 4:45), mandatory participation in an experiment, Registrar hassles, the auditing of a class, gathering of textbooks, and trying to rectify the loss of the one class I looked forward to (Research in Food Studies). Plus I was starving. Researching Food History in Global Societies does not exactly ease that pain.

But the promise of one of the most famous burgers in America was incentive enough to pull through.



Though I have spent my entire college career here in New York City (has it really been four years already? yeesh), I admit, I am still unfamiliar with many areas. And even though I've been to Corner Bistro many a time over the years, I still get lost in the west village (why can't it just be a simple numbered grid? Jesus, is that too much to ask? no street have go from east/west to north/south, and intersections need a minimum of 8 streets pouring into it). With trusty companion Madelyn in tow, this week's adventure was no exception. Though I wandered on basically the right track, we went back and forth as I debated if I had passed it accidentally or not. But just like waiting in that epic Shake Shack line, when you have to work for your food, the reward is just that much better.

Finally I spotted that neon sign and knew we had arrived. Relatively empty on this late Tuesday afternoon, we easily found a booth. With a very straightforward menu mounted on the wall, it took all of 1 minute to finalize our orders: Bistro Burger (medium rare), an plate of fries, and 2.50 mug of McSorley's dark. Mmm...

Recently, I've heard people saying that Corner Bistro has been going downhill. And while I was hesitant to join the bandwagon (because the only cooler thing than joining the backlash against a popular thing, is the backlash against the backlash), I will have to admit that it was the worst Bistro Burger I had ever had there. No juice made a huge sopping mess everywhere like usual. That being said, saying it was the worst Bistro Burger I ever had is like saying it's the worst free yacht I have received. It's still a fucking yacht in an ocean of crappy rowboats. They still do their bacon to the perfect texture to accompany the patty. Corner Bistro stands as a symbol of one of the truly great burger profiles: a simple, decadent bar option to heartily pair well with a delicious beer after a long day. It's still a golden standard so many places try to measure up to.

Well, satiating our craving, we (miraculously) still had some room for dessert. After debating if we could find it (I told you, we're bad at navigating the west village), we made our way to also famous Magnolia bakery. Because I am an awesome roommate, I picked up a little first day of school treat for everyone back in the apartment (though, I did save the best, red velvet, for myself). Seriously, the red velvet cupcake is heavenly. It is worth the 20% price jump (a whopping 50 cents) for the moist crumb, sweet frosting, tender texture, and exotic color. A side note, their iced maple cookies (a measly 75 cents) is a nice addition if you want a little extra sweet treat (and variety) but doing the double cupcake (after a bacon cheeseburger) seems...excessive. I know, I am sucker to impulsively add on little extras like that.

Anyways, the perfect way to cap the last first day of a college semester. I'd do it all the time, if I could.

OH and before I forget! Yes, TNBC may come to a close, as I am no longer on campus with Madelyn on Tuesdays. But to keep the tradition alive, we are working to coordinate a new time/day for our weekly meetings. Rest assured dear reader(s?), that I will continue the NYC hunt for delicious burger.
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Fish Tacos. Alex Loves Them.

I'm sorry I don't have that much to provide in this update, since we last talked, I've fallen a touch ill. Not only has it left me exhausted all the time, I have had a distinct lack of appetite, so I've haven't taken advantage of revisiting my all of my favorite dining spots yet. I'll spare you the rest of the gory details.
I do have one thing to mention, an outing with friends to The Natural Cafe, mere days before I, gastronomically, came apart at the seams.


So I had yet to see my friends Dan DeMaria and Stuart, two of my oldest friends. We go all the way back to Elementary School together. MOUNTAIN VIEW CREW REPRESENT.

Anyways, we arranged to meet for lunch, Dan also getting the chance to introduce us to his girlfriend (who followed him here on break all the way from Toronto). We had originally planned to meet at our favorite place of all, The Habit, but because Dan's gal pal has certain dietary restrictions, we changed game plans. Don't worry though, I will certainly eat at my favorite burger place before I head back to NYC.

The Natural Cafe caters to the classic so cal-liberal stereotypes, the kinds of people Stuff White People Like makes fun of. There's plenty of vegetarian and vegan options, and everything has that fresh, healthy slant on it. And while it's typically not my scene, there is nothing inherently wrong with it.

I ordered the Cabo Fish Tacos, something I enjoy but rarely have in New York. While it was good here, the carrot adding a subtle sweetness that I was at first hesitant about, the fish lacked any pronounced flavor. At first I thought I was served the chicken by accident. A little disappointing, but the flavor and heat of the salsa made the meal palatable.

So maybe not the best place to eat but if avoiding red meat is your thing, it's worth a once over.
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